A new discrete dynamical friction estimator based on N-body simulations

A long-standing problem in galactic simulations is to resolve the dynamical friction (DF) force acting on massive black hole particles when their masses are comparable to or less than the background simulation particles. Many sub-grid models based on the traditional Chandrasekhar DF formula have been proposed, yet they suffer from fundamental ambiguities in the definition of some terms in Chandrasekhar's formula when applied to real galaxies, as well as difficulty in evaluating continuous quantities from (spatially) discrete simulation data. In this work, we present a new sub-grid DF estimator based on the discrete nature of N-body simulations, which also avoids the ambiguously defined quantities in Chandrasekhar's formula. We test our estimator in the gizmo code and find that it agrees well with high-resolution simulations where DF is fully captured, with negligible additional computational cost. We also compare it with a Chandrasekhar estimator and discuss its applications in real galactic simulations.