Chemokines and cytotoxic effector molecules in rejection

Increased or de novo expression of chemokines and cytotoxic effector molecules is part of the immunologic constant of rejection and are central to the signature of broad activation of proinflammatory and cytotoxic cells. Although several chemokines are associated with rejection and provocative results have been obtained in animal models, no real breakthroughs have occurred in translating these findings to clinical transplantation. In contrast, the cytotoxic effector molecules, granulysin, granzymes and perforin have proven to be important biomarkers for rejection.