Abstract
We present ultraviolet/optical/near-infrared observations and modeling of Type II supernovae (SNe II) whose early time (δt<2 days) spectra show transient, narrow emission lines from shock ionization of confined (r<1015 cm) circumstellar material (CSM). The observed electron-scattering broadened line profiles (i.e., IIn-like) of H i, He i/ii, C iv, and N iii/iv/v from the CSM persist on a characteristic timescale (tIIn) that marks a transition to a lower-density CSM and the emergence of Doppler-broadened features from the fast-moving SN ejecta. Our sample, the largest to date, consists of 39 SNe with early time IIn-like features in addition to 35 “comparison” SNe with no evidence of early time IIn-like features, all with ultraviolet observations. The total sample includes 50 unpublished objects with a total of 474 previously unpublished spectra and 50 multiband light curves, collected primarily through the Young Supernova Experiment and Global Supernova Project collaborations. For all sample objects, we find a significant correlation between peak ultraviolet brightness and both tIIn and the rise time, as well as evidence for enhanced peak luminosities in SNe II with IIn-like features. We quantify mass-loss rates and CSM density for the sample through the matching of peak multiband absolute magnitudes, rise times, tIIn, and optical SN spectra with a grid of radiation hydrodynamics and non-local thermodynamic equilibrium radiative-transfer simulations. For our grid of models, all with the same underlying explosion, there is a trend between the duration of the electron-scattering broadened line profiles and inferred mass-loss rate: tIIn≈3.8[Ṁ/(0.01 M⊙ yr−1)] days.
Original language | English (US) |
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Article number | 189 |
Journal | Astrophysical Journal |
Volume | 970 |
Issue number | 2 |
DOIs | |
State | Published - Aug 1 2024 |
Funding
The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen\u2019s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, STScI, NASA under grant NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, NSF grant AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. M.R.D. acknowledges support from the NSERC through grant RGPIN-2019-06186, the Canada Research Chairs Program, and the Dunlap Institute at the University of Toronto. This research was supported by the Munich Institute for Astro-, Particle and BioPhysics (MIAPbP), which is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany's Excellence Strategy - EXC-2094 - 390783311. V.A.V. acknowledges support by the NSF under grant AST-2108676. C.R.A. was supported by grants from VILLUM FONDEN (project Nos. 16599 and 25501). Parts of this research were supported by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project No. CE170100013. The UCSC team is supported in part by NASA grant 80NSSC20K0953, NSF grant AST\u20131815935, the Gordon & Betty Moore Foundation, the Heising-Simons Foundation, and by a fellowship from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to R.J.F. The Young Supernova Experiment and its research infrastructure are supported by the European Research Council under the European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (ERC grant agreement No. 101002652, PI K. Mandel), the Heising-Simons Foundation (2018-0913, PI R. Foley; 2018-0911, PI R. Margutti), NASA (NNG17PX03C, PI R. Foley), NSF (AST-1720756, AST-1815935, PI R. Foley), the David & Lucille Packard Foundation (PI R. Foley), VILLUM FONDEN (project No. 16599, PI J. Hjorth), and the Center for AstroPhysical Surveys (CAPS) at NCSA and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Research at UC Berkeley is conducted on the territory of Huichin, the ancestral and unceded land of the Chochenyo speaking Ohlone people, the successors of the sovereign Verona Band of Alameda County. Keck I/II, ATLAS, and PS1 observations were conducted on the stolen land of the k\u0101naka \u2018\u014Diwi people. We stand in solidarity with the Pu\u2019uhonua o Pu\u2019uhuluhulu Maunakea in their effort to preserve these sacred spaces for native Hawai\u2018ians. MMT observations were conducted on the stolen land of the Tohono O\u2019odham and Hia-Ced O\u2019odham nations; the Ak-Chin Indian Community, and Hohokam people. ZTF observations were conducted on the stolen land of the Pauma and Cupe\u00F1o tribes; the Kumeyaay Nation and the Pay\u00F3mkawichum (Luise\u00F1o) people. Shane 3 m observations were conducted on the stolen land of the Ohlone (Costanoans), Tamyen, and Muwekma Ohlone tribes. We thank Nathan Smith, David Sand, and Avishay Gal-Yam for valuable discussions, and Viktoriya Morozova for providing the initial SNEC models. IRAF is distributed by NOAO, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the NSF. The Young Supernova Experiment and its research infrastructure are supported by the European Research Council under the European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (ERC grant agreement No. 101002652, PI K. Mandel), the Heising-Simons Foundation (2018-0913, PI R. Foley; 2018-0911, PI R. Margutti), NASA (NNG17PX03C, PI R. Foley), NSF (AST-1720756, AST-1815935, PI R. Foley), the David & Lucille Packard Foundation (PI R. Foley), VILLUM FONDEN (project No. 16599, PI J. Hjorth), and the Center for AstroPhysical Surveys (CAPS) at NCSA and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. W.J.-G. is supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant DGE1842165. W.J.-G. acknowledges NASA grants in support of Hubble Space Telescope programs GO-16075 and GO-16500. This research was supported in part by the NSF under grant PHY1748958. The Margutti team at UC Berkeley is partially funded by the Heising-Simons Foundation under grants No. 2018-0911 and No. 2021-3248 (PI R. Margutti). R.C. acknowledges support from NASA Swift grant 80NSSC22K0946. C.D.K. is partly supported by a CIERA postdoctoral fellowship. A. Haynie is supported by the USC-Carnegie Graduate Fellowship. D.L. was supported by a VILLUM FONDEN Investigator grant (project No. 16599). C.G. is supported by a VILLUM FONDEN Young Investigator grant (project No. 25501). This work was funded by ANID, Millennium Science Initiative, ICN12_009. The work of X. W. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC grants 12288102 and 12033003) and the New Cornerstone Science Foundation through the XPLORER PRIZE. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of TGCC under the allocation 2021\u2014A0110410554 and 2022 \u2014A0130410554 made by GENCI, France. This research was supported by the Munich Institute for Astro-, Particle and BioPhysics (MIAPbP), which is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany\u2019s Excellence Strategy - EXC-2094 - 390783311. K.A.B. is supported by an LSSTC Catalyst Fellowship; this publication was thus made possible through the support of grant 62192 from the John Templeton Foundation to LSSTC. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of LSSTC or the John Templeton Foundation. A.V.F.\u02BCs research group at UC Berkeley acknowledges financial assistance from the Christopher R. Redlich Fund, as well as donations from Gary and Cynthia Bengier, Clark and Sharon Winslow, Alan Eustace, William Draper, Timothy and Melissa Draper, Briggs and Kathleen Wood, and Sanford Robertson (W.Z. is a Bengier-Winslow-Eustace Specialist in Astronomy, T.G.B. is a Draper-Wood-Robertson Specialist in Astronomy, and Y.Y. was a Bengier-Winslow-Robertson Fellow in Astronomy). Numerous other donors to his group and/or research at Lick Observatory include Michael and Evelyn Antin, Shawn Atkisson, Charles Baxter and Jinee Tao, Duncan and Catherine Beardsley, Marc and Cristina Bensadoun, Frank and Roberta Bliss, Ann and Gordon Brown, Tina and Greg Butler, Alan and Jane Chew, Curt Covey, Byron and Allison Deeter, Arthur and Cindy Folker, Peter and Robin Frazier, Ellen Fujikawa, Heidi Gerster, Harvey Glasser, John Gnuse, George and Allison Good, Charles and Gretchen Gooding, Thomas and Dana Grogan, Alan Gould and Diane Tokugawa, Timothy and Judi Hachman, Michael and Virginia Halloran, Robert and Tina Hinckley, Alan and Gladys Hoefer, Jeff and Allison Holland, Jerry and Patti Hume, the Hugh Stuart Center Charitable Trust, James and Zem Joaquin, Joel Krajweski, Walter and Karen Loewenstern, Gregory Losito and Veronica Bayduza, Art and Rita Levinson, Jesse Levinson, Herbert Masters III, Bruce and Judith Moorad, Rand Morimoto and Ana Henderson, James and Marie O\u2019Brient, Douglas and Emily Ogden, Jim Ostendorf, Garry Parton, Edward and Ellin Purdom, Jonathan and Susan Reiter, Margaret Renn, Paul Robinson, Catherine Rondeau, Eric Rudney, Stanley and Miriam Schiffman, Thomas and Alison Schneider, Ajay Shah and Lata Krishnan, Bruce and Debby Smith, Hans Spiller Justin and Seana Stephens, Charles and Darla Stevens, David and Joanne Turner, Rolf Weber, Gerald and Virginia Weiss, Byron and Nancy Wood, Weldon Wood, Richard Wylie, David and Angie Yancey, and Thomas Zdeblick. The TReX team at UC Berkeley is supported in part by the NSF under grants AST-2221789 and AST-2224255, and by the Heising-Simons Foundation under grant No. 2021-3248 (PI R. Margutti). M.R.D. acknowledges support from the NSERC through grant RGPIN-2019-06186, the Canada Research Chairs Program, and the Dunlap Institute at the University of Toronto. This research was supported by the Munich Institute for Astro-, Particle and BioPhysics (MIAPbP), which is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany's Excellence Strategy - EXC-2094 - 390783311. V.A.V. acknowledges support by the NSF under grant AST-2108676. C.R.A. was supported by grants from VILLUM FONDEN (project Nos. 16599 and 25501). Parts of this research were supported by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project No. CE170100013. The UCSC team is supported in part by NASA grant 80NSSC20K0953, NSF grant AST\u20131815935, the Gordon & Betty Moore Foundation, the Heising-Simons Foundation, and by a fellowship from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to R.J.F. Based in part on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, owned in collaboration by the University of Turku and Aarhus University, and operated jointly by Aarhus University, the University of Turku and the University of Oslo, representing Denmark, Finland, and Norway, the University of Iceland and Stockholm University at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. Observations were obtained under program P62-507 (PI: Angus). This work includes data obtained with the Swope telescope at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile, as part of the Swope Time Domain Key Project (PI A. Piro; CoIs Coulter, Drout, Phillips, Holoien, French, Cowperthwaite, Burns, Madore, Foley, Kilpatrick, Rojas-Bravo, Dimitriadis, Hsiao). We thank Abdo Campillay, Yilin Kong-Riveros, Piera Soto-King, and Natalie Ulloa for observations on the Swope telescope. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and NASA. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. A major upgrade of the Kast spectrograph on the Shane 3 m telescope at Lick Observatory, led by Brad Holden, was made possible through generous gifts from the Heising-Simons Foundation, William and Marina Kast, and the University of California Observatories. Research at Lick Observatory is partially supported by a generous gift from Google. Based in part on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin 48 inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility project. ZTF is supported by the NSF under grant AST-1440341 and a collaboration including Caltech, IPAC, the Weizmann Institute for Science, the Oskar Klein Center at Stockholm University, the University of Maryland, the University of Washington, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron and Humboldt University, Los Alamos National Laboratories, the TANGO Consortium of Taiwan, the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Operations are conducted by the Caltech Optical Observatories (COO), the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC), and the University of Washington (UW). The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen\u2019s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, STScI, NASA under grant NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, NSF grant AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. This work makes use of observations taken by the Las Cumbres Observatory global telescope network. The Las Cumbres Observatory Group is funded by NSF grants AST1911225 and AST-1911151. The new SALT data presented here were obtained through Rutgers University program 2022- 1-MLT-004 (PI S. Jha). Funding for the Lijiang 2.4 m telescope has been provided by the CAS and the People\u2019s Government of Yunnan Province. We are grateful to the staffs at the various observatories where data were obtained. We thank S. Bradley Cenko, Thomas de Jaeger, Ori Fox, Melissa Graham, Goni Halevi, Michael Kandrashoff, Patrick Kelly, Io Kleiser, Jon Mauerhan, Adam Miller, Sarafina Nance, Kishore Patra, Neil Pichay, Anthony Rodriguez, Isaac Shivvers, Jeffrey Silverman, Benjamin Stahl, Erika Strasburger, Heechan Yuk, and Sameen Yunus for assistance with some of the Lick/Shane/Kast observations or reductions. The following U.C. Berkeley undergraduate students helped with the Lick/Nickel observations: Raphael Baer-Way, Sanyum Channa, Teagan Chapman, Nick Choksi, Maxime de Kouchkovsky, Nachiket Girish, Goni Halevy, Andrew Halle, Romain Hardy, Andrew Hoffman, Benjamin Jeffers, Connor Jennings, Sahana Kumar, Evelyn Liu, Emma McGinness, Jeffrey Molloy, Yukei Murakami, Andrew Rikhter, Timothy Ross, Jackson Sipple, Samantha Stegman, Haynes Stephens, James Sunseri, Kevin Tang, and Sameen Yunus. Facility: NASA Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory Mission, Zwicky Transient Facility, ATLAS, YSE/PS1, Lick/Shane (Kast), Lick/Nickel, MMT (Binospec), Keck I/II (LRIS, DEIMOS), Las Cumbres Observatory, TESS. Software: IRAF (Tody 1986, 1993), photpipe (Rest et al. 2005), DoPhot (Schechter et al. 1993), HOTPANTS (Becker 2015), HEAsoft (v6.22), YSE-PZ (Coulter et al. 2022, 2023), CMFGEN (Hillier & Dessart 2012; Dessart et al. 2015), HERACLES (Gonz\u00E1lez et al. 2007; Vaytet et al. 2011; Dessart et al. 2015). This work makes use of observations taken by the Las Cumbres Observatory global telescope network. The Las Cumbres Observatory Group is funded by NSF grants AST-1911225 and AST-1911151. The new SALT data presented here were obtained through Rutgers University program 2022-1-MLT-004 (PI S. Jha). Funding for the Lijiang 2.4 m telescope has been provided by the CAS and the People\u2019s Government of Yunnan Province. Based in part on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin 48 inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility project. ZTF is supported by the NSF under grant AST-1440341 and a collaboration including Caltech, IPAC, the Weizmann Institute for Science, the Oskar Klein Center at Stockholm University, the University of Maryland, the University of Washington, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron and Humboldt University, Los Alamos National Laboratories, the TANGO Consortium of Taiwan, the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Operations are conducted by the Caltech Optical Observatories (COO), the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC), and the University of Washington (UW). Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and NASA. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. A major upgrade of the Kast spectrograph on the Shane 3 m telescope at Lick Observatory, led by Brad Holden, was made possible through generous gifts from the Heising-Simons Foundation, William and Marina Kast, and the University of California Observatories. Research at Lick Observatory is partially supported by a generous gift from Google. A.V.F.'s research group at UC Berkeley acknowledges financial assistance from the Christopher R. Redlich Fund, as well as donations from Gary and Cynthia Bengier, Clark and Sharon Winslow, Alan Eustace, William Draper, Timothy and Melissa Draper, Briggs and Kathleen Wood, and Sanford Robertson (W.Z. is a Bengier-Winslow-Eustace Specialist in Astronomy, T.G.B. is a Draper-Wood-Robertson Specialist in Astronomy, and Y.Y. was a Bengier-Winslow-Robertson Fellow in Astronomy). Numerous other donors to his group and/or research at Lick Observatory include Michael and Evelyn Antin, Shawn Atkisson, Charles Baxter and Jinee Tao, Duncan and Catherine Beardsley, Marc and Cristina Bensadoun, Frank and Roberta Bliss, Ann and Gordon Brown, Tina and Greg Butler, Alan and Jane Chew, Curt Covey, Byron and Allison Deeter, Arthur and Cindy Folker, Peter and Robin Frazier, Ellen Fujikawa, Heidi Gerster, Harvey Glasser, John Gnuse, George and Allison Good, Charles and Gretchen Gooding, Thomas and Dana Grogan, Alan Gould and Diane Tokugawa, Timothy and Judi Hachman, Michael and Virginia Halloran, Robert and Tina Hinckley, Alan and Gladys Hoefer, Jeff and Allison Holland, Jerry and Patti Hume, the Hugh Stuart Center Charitable Trust, James and Zem Joaquin, Joel Krajweski, Walter and Karen Loewenstern, Gregory Losito and Veronica Bayduza, Art and Rita Levinson, Jesse Levinson, Herbert Masters III, Bruce and Judith Moorad, Rand Morimoto and Ana Henderson, James and Marie O\u2019Brient, Douglas and Emily Ogden, Jim Ostendorf, Garry Parton, Edward and Ellin Purdom, Jonathan and Susan Reiter, Margaret Renn, Paul Robinson, Catherine Rondeau, Eric Rudney, Stanley and Miriam Schiffman, Thomas and Alison Schneider, Ajay Shah and Lata Krishnan, Bruce and Debby Smith, Hans Spiller Justin and Seana Stephens, Charles and Darla Stevens, David and Joanne Turner, Rolf Weber, Gerald and Virginia Weiss, Byron and Nancy Wood, Weldon Wood, Richard Wylie, David and Angie Yancey, and Thomas Zdeblick. C.D.K. is partly supported by a CIERA postdoctoral fellowship. A. Haynie is supported by the USC-Carnegie Graduate Fellowship. D.L. was supported by a VILLUM FONDEN Investigator grant (project No. 16599). C.G. is supported by a VILLUM FONDEN Young Investigator grant (project No. 25501). This work was funded by ANID, Millennium Science Initiative, ICN12_009. The work of X.W. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC grants 12288102 and 12033003) and the New Cornerstone Science Foundation through the XPLORER PRIZE. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of TGCC under the allocation 2021\u2014A0110410554 and 2022\u2014A0130410554 made by GENCI, France. This research was supported by the Munich Institute for Astro-, Particle and BioPhysics (MIAPbP), which is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany\u2019s Excellence Strategy - EXC-2094 - 390783311. K.A.B. is supported by an LSSTC Catalyst Fellowship; this publication was thus made possible through the support of grant 62192 from the John Templeton Foundation to LSSTC. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of LSSTC or the John Templeton Foundation. W.J.-G. is supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant DGE-1842165. W.J.-G. acknowledges NASA grants in support of Hubble Space Telescope programs GO-16075 and GO-16500. This research was supported in part by the NSF under grant PHY-1748958. The Margutti team at UC Berkeley is partially funded by the Heising-Simons Foundation under grants No. 2018-0911 and No. 2021-3248 (PI R. Margutti). R.C. acknowledges support from NASA Swift grant 80NSSC22K0946. The TReX team at UC Berkeley is supported in part by the NSF under grants AST-2221789 and AST-2224255, and by the Heising-Simons Foundation under grant No. 2021-3248 (PI R. Margutti).
ASJC Scopus subject areas
- Astronomy and Astrophysics
- Space and Planetary Science